Diagnoses and Treatment of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia Among Racially and Ethnically Diverse Persons Living with Dementia.

Background: Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) and prescribed central nervous system (CNS) active drugs to treat them are prevalent among persons living with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (PLWD) and lead to negative outcomes for PLWD and their caregivers. Yet, little is known about racial/ethnic disparities in diagnosis and use of drugs to treat BPSD. Objective: Quantify racial/ethnic disparities in BPSD diagnoses and CNS-active drug use among community-dwelling PLWD. Methods: We used a retrospective cohort of community-dwelling Medicare Fee-for-Service beneficiaries with dementia, continuously enrolled in Parts A, B and D, 2017-2019. Multivariate logistic models estimated rates of BPSD diagnosis and, conditional on diagnosis, CNS-active drug use. Results: Among PLWD, 67.1% had diagnoses of an affective, psychosis or hyperactivity symptom. White (68.3%) and Hispanic (63.9%) PLWD were most likely, Blacks (56.6%) and Asians (52.7%) least likely, to have diagnoses. Among PLWD with BPSD diagnoses, 78.6% took a CNS-active drug. Use was highest among whites (79.3%) and Hispanics (76.2%) and lowest among Blacks (70.8%) and Asians (69.3%). Racial/ethnic differences in affective disorders were pronounced, 56.8% of white PLWD diagnosed; Asians had the lowest rates (37.8%). Similar differences were found in use of antidepressants. Conclusions: BPSD diagnoses and CNS-active drug use were common in our study. Lower rates of BPSD diagnoses in non-white compared to white populations may indicate underdiagnosis in clinical settings of treatable conditions. Clinicians' review of prescriptions in this population to reduce poor outcomes is important as is informing care partners on the risks/benefits of using CNS-active drugs.

Estimates of diagnosed dementia prevalence and incidence among diverse beneficiaries in traditional Medicare and Medicare Advantage.

Approximately half of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in Medicare Advantage (MA), a private plan alternative to traditional Medicare (TM). Yet little is known about diagnosed dementia rates among MA enrollees, limiting population estimates. All (100%) claims of Medicare beneficiaries using encounter data for MA and claims for TM for the years 2015 to 2018 were used to quantify diagnosed dementia prevalence and incidence rates in MA, compare rates to TM, and provide estimates for the entire Medicare population and for different racial/ethnic populations. In 2017, dementia incidence and prevalence among MA beneficiaries were 2.54% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.53 to 2.55) and 7.04% (95% CI: 7.03 to 7.06). Comparison to TM adjusted for sociodemographic and health differences among beneficiaries in MA and TM; the prevalence of diagnosed dementia among beneficiaries in MA was lower (7.1%; 95% CI: 7.12 to 7.13) than in TM (8.7%; 95% CI: 8.71 to 8.72). The diagnosed dementia incidence rate was also lower in MA (2.50%; 95% CI: 2.50 to 2.50) compared to TM (2.99%; 95% CI: 2.99 to 2.99). There were lower rates in MA compared to TM for men and women and White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native persons. Diagnosed dementia prevalence and incidence for the entire Medicare population was 7.9% (95% CI: 7.91 to 7.93) and 2.8% (95% CI: 2.77 to 2.78). Lower diagnosed dementia rates in MA compared to TM may exacerbate racial/ethnic disparities in diagnosed dementia. Rates tracked over time will provide understanding of the impact on dementia diagnosis of 2020 MA risk adjustment for dementia.

COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality in community-dwelling racially and ethnically diverse persons living with dementia.

BACKGROUND: Community-dwelling persons living with dementia (PLWD) are vulnerable to COVID-19 infection, severity, and mortality due to the high prevalence of comorbidities, reliance on caregivers, and potential inability to employ risk reduction measures, among other factors. METHODS: We used a retrospective cohort of Medicare Fee-For-Service beneficiaries enrolled from January 2018 to September 2020 (n = 13,068,583), a comparison cohort from January 2019 to April 2021 (n = 13,250,297), and logistic regression to estimate the effect of dementia on COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality in community-dwelling older persons. RESULTS: COVID-19 diagnoses were higher among persons living with dementia (PLWD) than those without dementia. Conditional on COVID-19 in the 2020 cohort, White PLWD were at higher risk of hospitalization compared to White persons without dementia (aOR 1.31, 95% CI: 1.26-1.36) and marginal for Black PLWD (aOR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.01-1.20), no significant differences were found within other racial/ethnic groups. PLWD were 1.8 times (aOR 1.78, 95% CI: 1.72-1.84) more likely to die within 30 days of COVID-19 on average. Within racial/ethnic groups, the estimate for White PLWD, compared with White persons without dementia, was highest (aOR 2.01, 95% CI: 1.92-2.10), followed by Black PLWD (aOR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.41-1.70), and smallest among Hispanic PLWD (aOR 1.37, 95% CI: 1.24-1.50). PLWD hospitalized with COVID-19 were 1.6 times (aOR 1.59, 95% CI: 1.52-1.67) more likely to die within 30 days than similar persons without dementia. Estimates from the 2021 cohort, when vaccines were available to older persons, were similar to those in 2020. CONCLUSIONS: Community-dwelling PLWD experienced worse outcomes after a COVID-19 diagnosis than their counterparts without dementia. Results demonstrating higher mortality, but not hospitalization rates, for all races/ethnicities except White PLWD suggest there may have been differential care/treatment that point to potential health care system inequities that persisted into 2021. Understanding the mechanisms underlying these differences may improve ongoing care for community-dwelling PLWD.

Medicare's Annual Wellness Visit and diagnoses of dementias and cognitive impairment.

Introduction: Early detection of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias allows clinicians and patients to prepare for future needs and identify treatment options. Medicare's Annual Wellness Visit (AWV) requires detection of cognitive impairment and may increase dementia diagnosis. We estimated the relationship between AWV receipt and incident dementia. Methods: Using a retrospective cohort of Medicare Fee-For-Service (FFS) beneficiaries enrolled for at least 3 years from 2009 to 2016 and two-stage least squares, we quantified the relationship between AWV and incident diagnosis of cognitive impairment/dementia, and by race/ethnicity. The county-level change in percent of beneficiaries receiving AWVs was used as an instrumental variable to account for unobserved factors associated with individuals' AWV receipt and diagnosis. Sample included 3,333,617 beneficiaries ages 67 years and older, without dementia at the beginning of the study. Results: Beneficiaries included 2,713,573 White, 251,958 Black, 196,845 Hispanic, 95,719 Asian, 11,727 American Indian/Alaska Native, and 63,795 of other race/ethnicity. Using ordinary least squares, dementia incidence was -0.79 percentage points (95% CI -0.81 to -0.76) lower for persons receiving an AWV compared to no AWV. Using instrumental variables reversed the direction of the effect: AWV receipt increased dementia diagnoses by 0.47 percentage points (95% CI 0.14 to 0.80), 15% over baseline. AWVs increased diagnoses 2.0 percentage points (95% CI 0.05 to 3.94) among Blacks, 0.40 percentage points (95% CI 0.05 to 0.75) among Whites, but est were imprecise for Hispanics and Asians. Discussion: Increasing AWV take-up and supporting physicians' performance of cognitive assessment may further improve dementia detection in the population and among groups at higher risk of undiagnosed dementia.

Benzodiazepine use and the risk of dementia.

Introduction: Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are commonly prescribed for anxiety and agitations, which are early symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD). It is unclear whether BZDs causally affect ADRD risk or are prescribed in response to early symptoms of dementia. Methods: We replicate prior case-control studies using longitudinal Medicare claims. To mitigate bias from prodromal use, we compare rates of ADRD diagnosis for beneficiaries exposed and unexposed to BZDs for cervical/lumbar pain, stenosis, and sciatica, none of which are associated with dementia. Results: Approximately 8% of Medicare beneficiaries used a BZD in 2007, increasing to nearly 13% by 2013. Estimates from case-control designs are sensitive to duration of look-back period, health histories, medication use, and exclusion of decedents. Incident BZD use is not associated with an increased risk of dementia in an "uncontaminated" sample of beneficiaries prescribed a BZD for pain (odds ratios (ORs) of 1.007 [95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.885, 1.146] and 0.986 [95% CI = 0.877, 1.108], respectively, in the 2013 and 2013 to 2015 pooled samples). Higher levels of BZD exposure (>365 days over a 2-year period) are associated with increased odds of a dementia diagnosis, but the results are not statistically significant at the 5% or 10% levels (1.190 [95% CI = 0.925, 1.531] and 1.167 [95% CI = 0.919, 1.483]). Discussion: We find little evidence of a causal relation between BZD use and dementia risk. Nonetheless, providers should limit the extended use in elderly populations.

Drug therapies for chronic conditions and risk of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias: A scoping review.

INTRODUCTION: Most older Americans use drug therapies for chronic conditions. Several are associated with risk of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD). METHODS: A scoping review was used to identify drug classes associated with increasing or decreasing ADRD risk. We analyzed size, type, and findings of the evidence. RESULTS: We identified 29 drug classes across 11 therapeutic areas, and 404 human studies. Most common were studies on drugs for hypertension (93) or hyperlipidemia (81). Fewer than five studies were identified for several anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory drugs. Evidence was observational only for beta blockers, proton pump inhibitors, benzodiazepines, and disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs. For 13 drug classes, 50% or more of the studies reported consistent direction of effect on risk of ADRD. DISCUSSION: Future research targeting drug classes with limited/non-robust evidence, examining sex, racial heterogeneity, and separating classes by molecule, will facilitate understanding of associated risk, and inform clinical and policy efforts to alleviate the growing impact of ADRD.

Changes in physical and mental health of Black, Hispanic, and White caregivers and non-caregivers associated with onset of spousal dementia.

INTRODUCTION: We aim to determine whether racial/ethnic health disparities are a consequence of caregiving for persons with dementia and/or health status before becoming a caregiver. METHODS: Longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study (1998-2012) on 7859 Black, Hispanic, and White couples were analyzed for changes in physical and mental health with incident dementia of a spouse. RESULTS: Blacks and Hispanics, but not Whites, had poorer health before becoming caregivers for a spouse with dementia, than those who did not become caregivers. Spouse's dementia onset was associated with caregiver's higher odds of depressive disorder, with no racial/ethnic variation. Racial disparities in caregiver's health were attributed to health differences before caregiving, not differential health changes due to caregiving. DISCUSSION: Older Blacks and Hispanics with poor health are at increased risk of caregiving for a spouse with dementia. Protecting the health of persons supporting spouses with dementia requires understanding socioeconomic and cultural factors driving care provision.

Cognitive Assessment At Medicare's Annual Wellness Visit In Fee-For-Service And Medicare Advantage Plans.

The Medicare annual wellness visit-a preventive care visit free to Medicare beneficiaries enrolled in Part B-requires detection of cognitive impairment. We surveyed an internet panel of adults ages sixty-five and older who were enrolled in fee-for-service Medicare or Medicare Advantage to measure the use of that benefit and the receipt of structured cognitive assessment by 2019. Overall, approximately one-half of beneficiaries surveyed reported having an annual wellness visit, and fewer than one-third reported having a structured cognitive assessment. Compared with fee-for-service enrollees, Medicare Advantage enrollees were nearly 20 percentage points more likely to report that they had an annual wellness visit and 8.6 percentage points more likely to report that it included a structured cognitive assessment. The difference suggests that the rate of structured cognitive assessment in fee-for-service Medicare might be increased by offering financial and other incentives for take-up that are similar to those in Medicare Advantage.

Parental Income and Wealth Loss and Transfers to their Young Adult Children.

As young people transition to adulthood, many rely on financial support from their parents to complete schooling and to live independently. Evidence suggests that there has been a gradual lengthening of the time young adults take to transition to adulthood. Young people attempting to move out of their parents' home, complete college, or enter the workforce during the Great Recession faced uncertain economic times, increasing their need for financial support. At the same time, the income and wealth losses experienced by young adults' parents may have disrupted transfers from them. We analyze the impact of large and unexpected declines in parents' income and wealth during and immediately after the Great Recession on monetary transfers to their young adult children using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and the PSID Transition to Adulthood study. We find parents' financial support of their young adult children declined during the Great Recession. The likelihood of receiving a transfer declined from 74% in 2005 to 57% in 2009. Parents' loss of income was a factor in the amount of decrease but on average was relatively modest - a $10,000 parental income loss decreased transfers to their adult children by $109. However, parents experiencing large declines in income, those at the 75th and 95th percentile of income loss, reduced transfers to adult children by $1,150 and $1,700, respectively. Declines in parental transfers that reduce college completion rates, increase student loan debt and decrease likelihood of homeownership may have long term consequences for financial well-being.

Measuring Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias in Diverse Populations Using Medicare Claims Data.

We examined how methods used for identifying dementia in administrative claims affected dementia incidence across racial/ethnic populations using a 100% sample of Medicare beneficiaries (n = 23,793,452). We found levels differed by method from 3.1% annual incidence to 3.6% in 2014. Dementia incidence declined from 2007 to 2014, but choice of method differentially impacted levels and trends by race/ethnicity. Methods using codes for dementia diagnosis and drugs to treat symptoms identified proportionally more Hispanics and Asians with dementia than other race/ethnicities, while codes for dementia diagnosis, drugs, and symptoms identified proportionally more whites and American Indians/Alaska Natives with dementia than other race/ethnicities.